Preface
Bangladesh is one of few countries who have an articulated education
policy. It inherited the education structure from its predecessor, British
regime. A series of attempt has been made to introduce a unique education
policy since independence in 1971 started with Kudrat-e- Khuda commission. Finally in 2010 government has finally
made it happened. On the other hand china came through a trajectory of policy
reform and transformation. China’s economic reform in the late 1970s
contributed a lot to its market oriented education policy. Education is a
catalyst for social cane. It helps to empower people. This study was conducted
on qualitative methodology with a comparative insight. Mainly secondary sources
have been used while preparing this paper.
Abstract
Changing prospect in education policies within China & Bangladesh
engendered numerous challenges in terms of comparing. The very nature of the
two states is quite distinct & the context as well. Policy seems to be more
self explanatory and compact so far as education policy of Bangladesh is
concerned. On the other hand China seems to be bit of conservative giving
little in detail. China is complacent only proving guideline through some
varying laws not strategies unlike its neighboring counterpart, Bangladesh. The
NEP (national education policy), 2010 as promulgated by the government of
Peoples’ republic of Bangladesh came up with some new and transformative ideas
which led to change education structure and physical structure as well (e. g
expanding primary education to class 8 ). In china they are found much more
reliant on china and giving emphasis on quality rather than quantity. History
and economic transformation of China in late 1970s has also contributed to its
education policy. China’s dive toward competitive educational standard so far
as students, teachers and school administration are concerned helped a lot for
competing in global context. Through an articulated discussion of the national
education policies of these two countries with analysis and critique, this
dissertation is all about an attempt to unveil the diversity of policy contents
as seen from both national and global context.
Section 1
INTRODUCTION
It is postulate that policy never starts in vacuum. Its relic can be
traced in pre existing laws, acts, perspective plan etc. Law guides policy that
is why law comes first to describe in chronological order. China’s principal
education law is ‘Educatio n law of People’s Republic of China-promulgated in
1995. Even some corresponding laws such ‘Compulsory education policy, 2006; ‘Vocational
education law, 1996; teachers’ law, 199 4; higher education law, 1999 works as
complementary to education policy. So, China’s education system rests upon
these sorts of laws in scattered form. On the other hand Bangladesh has legal
structure of education as narrated in constitution. The national education
policy NEP-2010 as promulgated by Bangladesh government is a compact guideline
in detail to steer the national education system. When it comes to comparative
study between the policies of two countries, Bangladesh and China here so many
diversity and similarities can be spotted. Before going through comparative
study on should keep in mind the existing social political economic setting
that shapes the policy. Policy takes it input from society and the dominant
ideology that governs people. So education policy of Bangladesh is out of
social & external demand and an attempt to foster the development
administration. As ruling party emphasized on ICT and technology in its
election manifestoes coining the term as ‘digital Bangladesh’ so it in
corporated ICT-related content in the policy. Even Bangladesh is deemed as most
vulnerable and victim of climate change so the issues like greenhouse, climate
change have been included in curriculum. So, context shape content and as
vice-e-versa. If we look to China we can see education sector is highly
privatized or decentralized. How does it come through? Nothing to surprise this
trend can be understood by looking at its economic transformation in late
1970s. In that time government shifted to market economy so education sector
has to flow in the confluence of marketization. When Mao-regime focuses on
equity based education post Mao- regime came up with the notion of efficiency replacing
equity. So, political paradigm shift has significant implication in preparing
policy.
OBJECTIVES
To review
the prevailing education policy of Bangladesh and China
Comparing
and finding similarities and differences between these two policies
5
Understanding the context of the policies of these two countries to find
out the feasibility of policies with prevailing social setting
examining
the policy input and policy process of respective countries
Literature Review
It is a matter of fact that, no research is conducted based on
comparative education policy between Bangladesh and China. Only a few
researches are available which focus whether on Bangladesh or on China. So,
there is a sense of urgency to conduct this comparative study. It is ultimate
pleasure that some research works, text books & journals can best help in
understanding this comparative study though those are written from different
perspective. The study paper and books are as follow:-
Reviewing education policy of Bangladesh (N. M. Sajjadul Hoque, 2012)
This paper is absolute outcome of empirical study which focuses on
capability of ‘NEP-2010’ to combat religious fundamentalism. This paper is also
popular for giving a thorough insight of education structure prevailing in the
country.
An analysis of national education
assessment policy in the people’s
republic of China
(Guofang Yuan, 1991): This paper is quintessential in the sense that it goes through the trajectory of educational
transformation in China with focusing on political and economic elements which
reinforce China to adopt its educational policy.
China education policy in the context of decentralization (Kinglun Ngok)
This book tells about the implication of decentralization and
marketization of China education. Throughout the book many figures and data
tables are presented to demonstrate the correlation between progress of
education and decentralization policy of education in China.
The Daily Star Column:
On 29 September, 20o9 The Daily Star published a column titling ‘An
analysis of education policy: The desire to learn must not be dampened by Abdus
Sattar Molla. This article features on some positive and critical aspects of
the then proposed NEP.
6
Methodology
No question about it that methodology is necessary in any research as a
guideline or framework for conducting social research. Without clear
methodological structure research work will turn into an unscientific stuff.
Methodological framework includes different tools techniques and overall strategies.
Ultimately it leads scientific investigation (Hossain and others, 2004: 21).
The method and techniques used in conducting this study can be put bellow-
Comparative Policy analysis:
As this study is accomplished mainly on the basis of secondary sources
so, the education policies of Bangladesh and China as well as pertaining laws
have been taken initially for in-depth analysis. It leaves opportunity to
explore into the content of policies of two countries. This opened the window
to look upon the similarities and dissimilarities between the policies of two
countries.
Reviewing related books, journals and published articles
As supplementary to comparative policy analysis different books
journals, papers, columns related to the topic have been studied. These
materials are from both countries with different perspective but have
significant relation to study topic.
Unit of Analysis
Here, Unit of analysis is country. The country means Bangladesh and
China so far as their education policy is concerned.
A bird’s eye view on the education
system of
Bangladesh & China
Bangladesh Education System
General Education: Since 1990, Primary Education has been tuition free and compulsory under the act of Compulsory Primary Education
in1990. The first level of education in Bangladesh incorporates 5 years of
formal schooling (class I - V). Now, in Education Policy 2010 proposed to
increase primary education level from grade 1 to grade 8.Other types of
institutions like kindergartens and junior sections attached to English medium
schools are also imparting it. The education policy 2010 also proposed to
introduce pre-primary education for 3 to 5 years of children. The second level
of education is comprised of 7 years of formal schooling. The first 3 years
(grades VI-VIII) is referred to as junior secondary; the next 2 years (grades
IX -X) is secondary while the last 2 years (grades XI - XII) is called higher
secondary. The third stage of education is comprised of 2-6 years of formal schooling.
The minimum requirement for admission to higher education is the higher
secondary certificate (H.S.C). HSC holders are qualified to enroll in 4-year
bachelors' degree honors courses in degree level colleges or in the
universities. Master degree courses are of one year for honors bachelor degree
holders and 2 years for pass bachelor degree holders. For those aspiring to
take up M.Phil and Ph.D courses in selected disciplines or areas of
specialization, the duration is of 2 years for M.Phil and 3-4 years for PhDs
after completion of master's degree.
Technical – Vocational Education:
Technical - vocational education in Bangladesh is
designed in three phases under two
major levels of secondary and tertiary level of education. Vocational courses
starts from secondary level. Recently, 2 years duration vocational courses have
been introduced at the higher secondary level. This course spread over 4 years
duration after passing the secondary school certification examination. The
College of Textile Technology and College of Leather Technology offer four
-year degree courses in Textile Engineering and Leather Technology respectively
after completing Higher Secondary Education.
8
Madrassah Education: There are mainly two types of madrasahs, Aliya and Qawmi. Aliya madrashas offer primary to
post-graduate level mixed education, mostly private and are partly funded and
supervised by the government.
China education System
General Education: Chaina takes several type of kidergarten and focus on four to six years childreen. kindergartens in local area
are opereted seasonally in the form of a nursery with one year of schooling. On
the other hand, in city kindergartens usually offer three years of schooling.
Primary schools period takes five or six years required to complete according
to curriculum. In Secondary education three or four-year course of study with
13 subject such as politics, chinese language, foreign
lenguage,mathmetics,history etc offered by the junior secondary education.
Students who are interested to continue their study have option either to join
a regular senior secondary school or attend a vocational secondary school.
Higher education system is basically divided into two types. Short time cycle
colleges award associate digrees and vocational courses leading to bachelor,s
degree. University and research institution in china also offer master degree
and doctorate.graduates are granted for diploma under qouta system.
Vocational education: some kind
of levels of vocational schools with a number of privetly funded vocational
schools formed in china from secondary education to higher education.
In china compulsory education period is 9 years while in Bangladesh it
was 5 years recently has been extended to 8 years.
Section 4
Overview on the education policies of
Bangladesh & China
National Education Policy, 2010
of Bangladesh
The first education commission
was constituted to prepare an education policy under the
leadership of Dr. Qudrat-e-Khuda. Secondly, in 1996, after coming Awami
League came to power, it again took steps to prepare an “Education Policy 2000’
was prepared. Finally a new education commission was formed headed by National
Professor KabirChowdhury included with 16 members in 2009 (see Annex 2). In
order to form a new education commission they reviewed education commission
reports of 1974 and 2000 education policy
from May to September 2009.It was included totally 24 goals and
objectives emphasizing on morality, creativity and production oriented
education, technical and vocational education,
inequity
|
regarding
|
gender, religion
|
and ethnicity
ICTand mathscience, and same
curricul
|
um and
|
syllabus or
|
all streams etc.
|
The
important aspect of this Education Policy is that,
|
it
emphasizes on religion, science and technical education.
The importent features of this education
policy-2010 are as follows:
·
The policy seeks to bring all
students of the country, irrespective of their religions, genders, andphysical
limitations, socioeconomic and geographic locations under one system
·
One-year pre-primary education for children over
five years old would be introduced.
·
Compulsory primary education extended up to
class-VIII from class-V and secondary
EducationtoclassXII with uniform curriculum and syllabus will be followed
in general, madrasa and vocational levels.Free education up to class-III from
the previous
class V.
·
At the higher level studies,
duration of all degree courses has been made four years instead of the previous three years.
·
On higher education, the policy
advised turning all threeyear graduation courses into four-year-honors courses
in phases. A student completing a four-year honors
10
course
will be entitled to allprofessions in his field.
·
Every School will have a mandatory library equipped
with necessary books
·
Provision for of lunch for the
students of primary level of the schools located in rural are a an backward
areas as strategy to hold back drop out problem.
National Education Law -1995 of China
National educational policy of china was adopted at the third session of
the eighth National People’s Congress on March 18, 1995, promulgated by Order
No.45 of the President of the People’s Republic of China on March 18, 1995 and
effective as of September 1, 1995.
Important contents of education law of china
·
School education system includes
infant school education, primary education, secondary education and higher
education.
·
Length of schooling, admissions
requirements and educational objectives shall be formulated by the State
Council or the departments in charge of educational administration so
authorized by the State Council.
·
The state shall adopt a nine-year compulsory
education system.
·
The State Council and all local
People’s government at different levels shall supervise and manage the educational
work according to the principle of management by different levels and division
of labor with individual responsibility.
·
Secondary and lower education
shall be managed by the local People’s government under the leadership of the
State Council. Higher education shall be managed by the State Council and the
People’s government of province, autonomous region or municipality directly
under the central government.
·
Educational inspection system and
educational assessment system for schools and other educational institutions
·
Teachers shall enjoy the rights
and interests stipulated by the law, perform duties prescribed by the law and
devote to the People’s education cause.
11
Comparative policy analysis
China’s principal education law is ‘Education law o f People’s Republic
of China- promulgated in 1995. Even some corresponding laws such ‘Compulsory
education policy, 2006; ‘Vocational education law, 1996; teachers’ law, 1994;
higher education law, 1999 works as complementary to education policy. So,
China’s education system rests upon these sorts of laws in scattered form. On
the other hand Bangladesh has legal structure of education as narrated in
constitution. The national education policy NEP-2010 as promulgated by
Bangladesh government is a compact guideline in detail to steer the national
education system. When it comes to comparative study between the policies of
two countries, Bangladesh and China here so many diversity and similarities can
be spotted. First of all let’s have a look on the context upon which respective
country adopted its policy.
Contextual difference
Bangladesh inherited British education system which is on the premise of
some the then distinguished commission e.g William
Benting education policy, Hunter Commission Nathan Commission. In Pakistan
period this policy journey didn’t end up. A series of commission were created
in that period e.g Khan Commission, Sharif Commission. After independence Kurat-e Khuda commission worked for education but their recommendation didn’t
see the light. In 2000, Bangladesh
Awami league (BAL) was first to introduce an education policy though it was
abortive as for regime change. So in true sense National Education Policy
(NEP), 2010 initiated by the ruling party Bangladesh Awami league (BAL) is
first successful education policy in country’s history. Now it is turn of China
which witnessed some political and economic paradigm shifts in the trajectory
of its history. So education policy was also affected by that transformation.
In Mao Zedong regime (head of China Communist Part- CCP) since 1949 there was a
continuous attempt to control and manage national education system through
state apparatus. Social equity was prime motto in administration with ensuring
access to education for peasant & working class children (Mung C Tsung;
200). Mao’s education perspective was expanding education to mass level not for
privileged few. By 1965, China adopted dual education system. One of which is
regular education other is work-study schools. In latter system
12
there was a scope to work & study hand in hand and these schools
were attended by students from peasant background. The fact is that in Mao
regime education sector didn’t get level of progress for highly centralized
system. In contrast, 1970s, considered as post Mao regime, came up with
economic reform which suggested for decentralization of education sector to
provincial government. It allows private entities to compete with government
school and even to make profit. So efficiency replaced equity.
Policy implementing agencies:
In Bangladesh, education policy’s main implementing
agency is MoE (Ministry of Education) and its subordinate wings in district and
upazila level, Ministry of primary education different secondary and higher
secondary education Board, Non-gov. teachers selection commission(proposed),
national academy for primary education, university Grant commission (UGC) etc.
In the NEP-2010 there is a provision which cited that state will take over the
responsibility of providing primary education not leaving it merely to private
sectors.(in the chapter of Pre-primary & Primary education in NEP-2010) On
the other hand China demonstrated an ironic scenario. Unlike a communist
country it bestowed the responsibility of education to provincial and local
government. Even liaise-fair policy is quite dominant here. So private sector
is also involved in policy implementation. Most importantly state owned
provincial universities are sponsored by provincial government and in some
cases by city government of China. Ministry of education (MoE) plays
facilitating role to provincial government.
Similarities in policy content
In China’s education law-1995 promulgated that the state and society
shall provide with different forms of financial aids to children, juveniles and
youths who are eligible for schooling from poor families. The state, society,
schools and other educational institutions shall organize education in
consideration of the physical and mental characteristics and requirements of
disabled people and offer them assistance and convenience. This idea of
state-society collaboration is somewhat analogues to the policy statement of Bangladesh. It also suggests for
encouraging social forces, NGOs, volunteers to promote mass and adult
education. It is impossible for a state to provide education to all marginal
segments of the population with limited resources.
13
Now let’s talk about the merit of teachers’ trainin g in these policies.
NEP-2012 came up with in detail explanation for teachers’ training though
emphasized on primary and secondary level. PTI (primary training institution)
is responsible to provide training. In most of the cases these institutions
deemed to be dumping ground of unskilled and lazy government officials though
is issue is overlooked in the policy. On the other hand in China Schools for teachers’ advanced studies is responsible for
proving training to the primary and secondary teachers (Teachers’ law-94; chap:
4 Art: 18)
Bangladesh doesn’t have unified education system. It allows Madrasha education (based on religious
theology with bit of modern curriculum), conceding English medium School under
foreign curriculum and exam system (Chapter: 06). Quite similarly China introduced religious school along
with general education.(Chap: 10; Art: 82). One shouldn’t be confused with
vocational education system because general compete with general and vocal as
vice-e-versa. According to NEP-2010 Madrasha students can equally compete with
general and English medium students.
Dissimilarities in policy content
Now come to distinguished features and dissimilarities between the two
policies. If we took teachers’ promotion & facilities as explanatory
variable then we can spot a sharp difference between the policies. In the
National education policy-2010 there is a provision for enhancing teachers’
promotion on the basis of academic quality and skill (NEP-10; Chapter-2,
article: 32). On the other hand in China government is more interested in
satisfying social & physiological need of the teachers. In China’s
Education law there is a provision which claim for providing good working
condition and social status to the teachers (ELPRC-95; Chapter-4; Article: 32).
So this is state’s preference at thinking on urgency.
In terms of teacher’s selection or employment China seems to way forward
than that of Bangladesh. In nation education policy ‘teachers recruitment
commission, PSC are responsible to select qualified teachers on the basis of
merit (Chap-2; Art- 33). On the other hand China is blessed with separate law
regarding teacher issues namely ‘Teachers’ law of the people’s republic of
China, 1994’. It suggests for amalgamating merit and moral character for
teachers’ recruitment. The administrative department of education under the
state council is the ultimate
14
authority to measure teachers’ qualification.(Teachers’ law of China;
Chap: 3; Art: 11, 12). So, here lies a qualitative difference between the
education policy of Bangladesh & China so far as teachers’ recruitment
criteria is concerned.
In case of vocational education there is a structural difference between
the policies of the two countries. In case of Bangladesh vocation training
starts after graduating grade 8 as per NEP-2010 (Chap: 5; Art: 3). The recent
emphasis is learning ICT, CSE etc. On the other hand, in China vocational
education have three tiers including primary, secondary and higher vocational
schools (Vocational Education Law, 1994; Chap: 2 Art: 13)
In respect to Quota provision China seems to be more rational than that
of Bangladesh. In terms of getting admission for higher education China gives
special quota facilities to the families which didn’t attend in university in
successive four generations. On the other hand, here in Bangladesh education
policy concede sons of freedom fighters to get preference in getting admission
at higher study schools.(NEP-10; Chap: 8; Art: 2)
NEP-10 bestowed extra preferential advantages to girl’s students proving
scholarship up to grade 12 (Chapter 16). This is missing in China’s education
law. In Chapter 21 of NEP-10 special recommendation is given for establishing a
creative exam and assessment system. This is a path breaking idea that replace
traditional memorize & vomit idea. On the other hand in China assessment
system is unique on emphasizing on academic achievement, behavior and
fulfillment of prescribed school works {E.L 95; Chap: 5, Art: 42(3)}. All these
issues made their assessment system more viable.
According to NEP-10 UGC (University Grant Commission) is responsible for
steering the wheel of higher study and research in the country. (Chap: 27,
education administration). In China provincial government with the help of MoE
look over the activities of state universities.
In China’s higher education law-99, there is a provision that enforce
state to hold higher education exam for self-taught people. This is very
creative idea which is missing in Bangladesh policy. China introduced bit of
unified education system as compared to Bangladesh. NEP-10 enforces Madrashas
and technical education streams to incorporate some core mandatory subjects but
excluded English medium for obligation and allegiance. Such a way it made the
policy a contradictory stuff.
15
Item
|
Content
|
#reference
in
|
Content
|
#reference
in
|
|
(Bangladesh -policy)
|
law/policy
|
(China-policy)
|
law/policy
|
||
Compulsory
|
Primary as well as
|
NEP-2010,
|
State adopt a 9 year
|
‘Education
|
|
Education
|
compulsory
education
|
Chapter
:02
|
compulsory
education
|
law-96’
|
|
extended
up to grade 8.
|
system
|
article-2
|
|||
Adult &
|
National committee for
|
NEP-2010,
|
The state will adopt
|
‘China
|
|
Vocational
|
Curriculum
will integrate
|
Chapter
:03
|
vocational
education in
|
education
|
|
Education
|
vocational
education
|
education
system
|
law-’95
|
||
article-19
|
|||||
Textbook
|
NCTB is responsible for
|
Chapter-02,
|
Gov. will take
|
education
|
|
distribution
|
Article-10
|
preferential
policy for
|
law-’95
|
||
publishing
textbook
|
article-
65
|
||||
Assessment
|
tri, half yearly and final
|
Chapter-02,
|
Assessment will include
|
E.L.’95;
|
|
system
|
exam
system up to H.S.C
|
Article-27
|
both
academic
|
Chapter-3;
|
|
level
in creative question
|
+ Chap:
21
|
performance
& behavior
|
article
42(3)
|
||
Specialized
|
Inclusion of Madrasha
|
Chpter-06
|
Inclusion of religious
|
E.L.’95;
|
|
Education
|
and
English medium
|
school
having separate
|
Chap:
10
|
||
Stream
|
schools
in the system
|
assessment
body
|
Art: 82
|
||
Teachers’
|
Primary teacher must get
|
NEP-10
|
Schools for teachers’
|
Teachers’
|
|
training
|
trained
within 3 years
|
Chap:
02
|
advanced
studies is
|
law-94;
|
|
since
recruitment:
|
responsible
for proving
|
chap: 4
Art:
|
|||
authority PTI
|
training
|
18
|
|||
Quota
|
for sons and grandsons of
|
Chap: 8
|
Disadvantaged family
|
||
Provision
|
freedom
fighters will get
|
Art: 02
|
will
get preference
|
||
preference
in admission
|
(social
equity)
|
||||
teacher’s
|
selection of qualified
|
Chap-2;
|
merit and moral
|
Teachers’
|
|
selection
|
teachers on the basis of
|
Art- 33
|
character
is equally
|
law of
|
|
merit
by PSC and
|
taken
into account
|
China;
|
|||
concerned
bodies
|
Chap:
3; Art:
|
||||
11, 12
|
|||||
16
|
|||||
promotion
on the basis of
|
NEP-10;
|
providing
good working
|
ELPRC-95;
|
|
promotion
|
academic quality and skill
|
Chapter-2,
|
condition and social
|
Chapter-4;
|
article:
32
|
status
|
Article:
32
|
||
&
facilities
|
||||
Section 6
Conclusion
Ontologically these two policies discuss about the
key issues of respective education system. When Bangladesh is blessed with a
compact policy document for education providing in detail explanation of
strategies China is still on the premise of laws made by congress. China have
different laws for different education stream ranging from vocational
education, higher education, teacher’s law, compulsory education law and
overall an education law. All these laws approved by legislature and
promulgated by executive give China a guideline to run its education system.
After comparing these two policies we can figure out some key findings.
Education policy of Bangladesh gives emphasis on merit and academic
qualification while china has a different idea and approach to it emphasizing
on both merit and moral character. This issue is highly considered whatever it
is about assessing students’ performance in schools, teachers’ employment or
teachers’ promotion. It is manifestation of the Confucius’s ethos in Chinese
administration. On the other hand Bangladesh administrative ethos rests upon
British colonial culture that sought for efficiency and merit to a large
extent. Education policy of Bangladesh sought government to increase control
over private sector that shows the dominating trend of policy makers. In
contrast China is glaring example of decentralization and marketization of
education sector. Its policy framework leaves more room to local government for
managing primary and secondary schools and bestowed the responsibility of
managing higher education schools to provincial government and municipal
government as well. To say for NEP-10 it can be criticized here that there’s no
mention of integrated science education; instead ICT was cited. To the best of
our knowledge, ICT can be a part of science and be counted as a
"core" subject. Finally, the committee suggested that
"core" subjects need not be applied to English medium education; it's
a gross mistake and will encourage madrashas
to defy the government rule of "core" subjects.
18
National Education Policy,
(Bangladesh) 2010
National Education Law, (China)
1995
Teacher’s law of the people’s republic of China, 19 94 Higher education
law of the people’s republic of China, 1999
Compulsory education law of the people’s republic of China, 2006
Vocational education law of the people’s republic of China, 1996
N. M.
Sajjadul Hoque, 2012. Reviewing education policy of Bangladesh;
Kinglun Ngok, 2007. China
education policy in the context of decentralization
Bangladesh Education Sector Review, Volume II & III, 2000, Dhaka:
the University Press Limited.
Newspapers
Anam, M. (edited), September 29,
2009. The Daily Star, Dhaka.
Internet Resources
http://www.banbeis.gov.bd
http://www.ecs.gov.bd/Bangla/PrintMenuHeader.php?MenuID=53
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_China
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