|
|
Name
|
Roll
|
Contribution
|
|
1.
|
Nusrat
Jahan Nipu
|
11
|
Paradigms of governance & administration
|
|
2.
|
Mohammad
Azizul Hoque
|
109 Governance in the age of
globalization
|
|
|
3.
|
Aysa Akter-
|
12 Confucius & moral
basis of bureaucracy
|
|
|
4.
|
Md. Masum
|
41 Classic of Public
Administration
|
|
|
5.
|
Md. Wasim
Uddin
|
45 Caliph Ali’s letter to
Malik Ashtar
|
|
|
6.
|
Md.
Muhibbur Rahman
|
30 Changing nature of PA
|
|
|
7.
|
Abid Hasan
Badol
|
27 The study of
administration
|
|
Table of Contents
Three Paradigms of
Governance and Public Administration:.................. 4
Governance in the age of
globalization....................................................................... 6
Confucius and the Moral
Basis of Bureaucracy.................................................... 9
Classic of public
administration.......................................................................................... 9
Caliph Ali’s Letter to Malik
Ashtar.................................................................................. 15
The Changing Nature of
Public Administration:................................................ 18
The study of administration................................................................................................ 20
2
As a professional field public administration is not new one. Its trace
can be found from primitive age to medieval age. Different kings and ruler used
to apply their own style of administration to run their state. Woodrow Wilson
& Co were first to think this as a field of study or academic discipline.
The classic age of public administration witnessed a series of theories and
path breaking model to conceive public administration. It ranges from Wilsons’
study of public administration, Weber’s ideal type bureaucracy to Taylor’s
principle of scientific management. This intellectual journey didn’t end up
with not only the then ideas but faced lots of challenges with the advent of
modernity & globalization. That is why Ali Farazmand made an attempt to
conceive this discipline from global perspective. Even this discipline has
already a series of paradigm-shift. So this paradigm-shift has certainly
affected the nature of government that is pointed out by Guy Peters in his
article of ‘changing nature of public administration’. Beside the ascendency
and dominance of Western thought on this discipline there are some scholars who
conceive it from comparative lens. They come up with a comparative study to
understand the feasibility of the western model of administration in a different
social setting. That is the way Western model faced a huge challenge to claim
for having ‘a suit fit for all’. East Asian miracle ironically demonstrated the
success of Confucian style of administration. Even the Islamic philosophy to
run the administration as narrated in the letter of Caliph Ali seems to think
beyond all modern techniques of administration. How come someone explain the
philosophy of common man (protector of justice) so long time back? So,
comparative study of public administration helped to conceive this discipline
from a more comprehensive perspective.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This review paper is all from secondary sources. Seven key articles on
the theoretical basis of public administration have been taken as resources to pursue
the research. Besides some textbooks, journals and web resources pertaining to
the discipline helped this paper to come true.
3
Administration:
Chinese, Western & Islamic
------Prof. Dr. H.C. Wolfgang Drechsler
Preview:
In this article Dr. Wolfgang discussed the different paradigms of public
administration and governance, which encompasses different fields of social
sciences such as political science and economics. He explained that there is no
perfect model and global best(practice of) Public Administration. This is in
contrast to the general assumption that the western or Anglo- American model of
Public Administration (PA) is the ideal, modern, democratic model of
governance.
Dr. Drechsler attempted to show that in different contexts ,there are
also solutions to common problems that are different from global-western PA but
not the worse, very likely at least some of them even better and there are
adequate ,good, indeed excellent solutions that completely depend on contexts.
Three ways of looking PA
Dr. Drechsler has proposed three possible models of trajectories to good
public Administration: Western, Multi-cultural, Contextual.
Western: He described it as the global western mainstream: Global=Western=good (=modern).According to this idea, the
good PA is universal that by and at large this is western PA and that will
remain so for foreseeable times to come.
Multicultural: We may call multi-cultural PA would hold that there is no such thing like ideal PA as such, that good PA
depends entirely on culture and context, never mind on which level.
Contextual: Third model, contextual says that there is something like good PA and although it may be an amorphous entity
and a moving target ,some solutions are similar at all or most time.
Chinese and Islamic PA as alternative to Western PA
This essay argues that there are (at least) three paradigms of
governance and especially public administration: Chinese, Western, and Islamic –
paradigms understood here as potentiality and theory rather than reality and
practice as observed today. It then discusses classical Chinese, i.e.
Confucian, and Islamic, specifically Ottoman, public administration, as the
alternatives of western PA.
4
Chinese Public Administration
The Chinese public administration is influenced by the teachings of
Confucius. Some of the main characteristics of this model include an
examination system for the civil servants, centralized bureaucracy, ethics and
accountability and results-orientation. The author said that the Confucian
system is easily acceptable to the West because of its success and immense
contribution towards the field of public administration and governance.
Countries practicing the Chinese model of public administration include Japan,
South Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Singapore which are the most successful
countries of the world. For PA specifically, it is once again worth pointing
out the features whereby China was leading the west. We can assume that even
the modern state started itself started in China and not in the west. In
addition, the re-emergence of China as a dominating world power has reaffirmed
the influence and contribution of the Chinese model of public administration
and governance.
Islamic Public Administration
In contrast, the Islamic model which was the foundation of successful
governments such as the Ottoman Empire for 600 years has seen a decline over
the years. Like the Chinese counterpart, Ottoman PA was constantly under
reform, too-perennially modernizing at least since the 18th century like refocus on the
sultan’s role as Caliph, the dexterous use of media and communication
technology, the emphasis of persona loyalty and the purposeful creation of the
ideology of Ottomanism by Sultan Abdul Hamid. Today, Turkey remains a
progressive Muslim nation that practices Islamic public administration. This
model places more emphasis on economic and political performance compared to
the Confucian system. One of the key features of this model is decentralization
of bureaucracy which enables each entity within a government to have their own
system of governance. The author concluded the article by emphasizing the
importance and influence of the Islamic and Chinese PA. Both are alternatives
to the western model and characteristics from both are still relevant to the
system of governance in many countries around the world. The guiding question
is whether we arrive more easily at good public administration if we realize
that there are different contexts and thus, potentially at least, different
ways thither, as well as legitimately different goals.
5
----Ali Farazmand
Public administration is a journey where change is inevitable and
inseparable. Most prominently among the national and international change
agents, the international financial and regional organizations are playing the
most overriding role in the domestic governance of the developing countries.
Politics administration dichotomy was the first Goodnow- Wilsonian discourse that
gives a hand its new academic journey. But at the end of the twenty century
many scholars demanded that the “Politics-administration conjugality” because
the a dministration cannot run by gainsaying the influenced of the national
politics and certainly the international politics that is termed as
globalization. It seems to be Turn back and due to increased complexity of the
public affairs. Among the paradigms of public administrations, the new borne
Governance considered as the supplementary of Public administration in the 21
century. Conventionally It is closedly observed that Public Administration is
dealing with two types of policy such as organizational policy and the national
policy and often skipping the international-global policy that is absent in
almost all previous administrative paradigms. Public administration that is the
confiscated only within the inter-organizational policy, formulated by
organizational personnel’s, and the national level policy, formulate by the
legislature, but very surprisingly we often skipping the international policy
and global political affairs that is formulated by regional and the
international organizations. Thought we do not care about the international
affairs in the domestic policy process but paradoxically we are using and
Appling the ideas and theories that developed by the World bank, IMF, WTO, UNDP
and some others consultancy firms through their various proclamation, workshop,
publications, seminar, symposium and conferences. That mean ultimately we
cannot avoid the affairs of international political and financial actors from
our domestic governance. The process of globalization is accelerated by a
number of contributing factors or forces like technological innovations;
declining domestic economies of powerful industrialized countries of the North;
the military and political pressures as well as wars of the latter nations on
the third world countries of the South; the fall of the former Soviet Union as
an alternative world system power; the role of western ideological propaganda;
the role of the United Nations’ agencies such as IMF, the World Bank, and WTO;
international donors, including the USAID; the rising citizen expectations,
including labor demands for sharing power in management and organizational
democracy; and availability of new cheap labor force across gender and racial
groups worldwide. To coping with the age of globalization we need for capacity
building, enhancement, and innovation in policy and management. This paper is
divided into three parts such as (1) key concepts of governance with a
multitude of diverse notions of the term; (2) “soun d governance” with major
dimensions, key issues, and characteristics; (3) and challenges and
opportunities, with implications for South and Southeast Asia; Weather it is
good governance or sound governance, the entrepreneurial governance or the
competitive governance or the
6
mission driven governance or the meta governance or the social-political
governance, the common characteristics in all the form of governance is
rejecting the traditional form of governance of authority, bureaucratic nature,
rigid hierarchy, the centralized decision making and implementations and
suggest the flexibility of rues, giving more emphasis on the outputs and the
impacts for of the project for the service takers, the broader citizen
engagement and the active participation in the decision making and unionization
among the state actors, social and non-state actors including some
international actors. Among them the Good governance was first developed by the
World Bank and UNDP which became the most pressing requirements on third world
countries in Asia, Africa, pressures of donor institutions of the North
demanded developing countries policy reforms in their governments and society as
a condition for international aid. Ultimately the poor country stays in poor.
So in this perspective we can adopt the sound governance. Sound Governance has
some characteristic demands like First; it is more comprehensive and
incorporates the important global or international force of governance. Second,
it includes the normative as well as technical and rational features of good
governance. Third, it requires soundness technically, professionally,
organizationally, managerially, politically, democratically, and economically.
Forth: it Accord the constitutional values. Sixth, the concept sound governance
has an ancient origin in the First World-State Achievement with a highly
efficient and effective administrative system And therefore inclusive and promotes
participation and interaction in an increasingly complex, diverse, and dynamic
national and international environment. Besides he talked about ten Dimensions
of Sound Governance. First is the Process that involves a process of governing
with the interaction of all elements or stakeholders involved; second is the
Structure that indicates the constitutive elements, actors, rules, regulations,
procedures, decision-making frameworks, and authoritative sources that
sanctions or legitimates the governance process. Third is the Cognition and
Values of governance. it breeds Normative values of fairness, equity,
integrity, representation, responsiveness, responsibility, tolerance, and
equality before law for all citizens regardless of color, race, ethnicity, gender,
and age. In fourth dimension he said Constitution is the fundamental guiding
document that serves as a blueprint for governance that should not ignored and
bypassed most of time we do. In Fifth dimensions he talked about the
Organization and Institution that is depended on each others. for example
institutions without sound organization are fragile and doomed to failure, as
they cannot perform and do what they have been created to do. Sixth is the
Management and Performance. Mere performance is not sufficient; it must produce
desired and intended outcomes, outcomes that translate into institutional and
system legitimacy. Seventh is the Policy. The goal achievement Two types of
policy are in order in sound governance: one is external to individual organizations
of governance and The second type of policy is internal to the individual
organizations and institutions of governance; both demand popular participation
in policy making and management, citizens. Eighth is the International or
Globalization Forces: the international and global organizations in this
functional category are the United Nations, and its various agencies and
organizations scattered worldwide. Their objectives and activities serve a wide
range
7
of purposes such as environment, poverty, migration, health and hunger,
and human rights. The Ninth is the dimension of Ethics, Accountability, and
Transparency and Tenth is the Participation and Citizen Engagement in
throughout the process. Social capital is urgent for economic development. At the
end of the papers Ali Farazmand talked about the some Challenges and
Opportunities for South and Southeast Asia. It is true that the challenges of
the twenty first century is facing by almost all the nation state but it is
very true for the developing country like the south and south Asian countries.
Due to the geographical location and the socio-cultural diversity the problems
is quite difference from the western and European countries. For example the
flood control, population density, urban-rural divide, urban governance and
administration, public management , regional and sub-regional terrorism,
regional misunderstanding, boarder security, human trafficking and so on and
colonial legacy and so on. Besides many nation in this regions challenges are
existing in this regions including the internal drug smuggling, rising citizen
expectations, massive migration crises, ethnic and regional conflicts or wars,
and doing impossible things with little or no resources. Besides the influences
from the international donor agency and the international regulatory and
financial institutions is prevailing if you want to live in the globe. So To
face those challenges specifically two strategies can be undertaken. First:
sticking to the local issues, thinking locally while being globally minded, but
engaging people and citizens directly, the most important asset of the state,
in communities, locally and nationally. Second is engaging national and
regional issues of governance challenges at regional and global levels. Third is
building capacity and skills in all areas of governance, public policy, and
administration. Asian countries can meet the challenges of globalization by
resorting to collective cooperative action like making supportive agency, issue
based organization, coalition and joint venture in the industrial development
to meet the economic need and to face the global challenges. In this rival
situation some countries like china, Iran, China, Japan, India, Malaysia,
Indonesia have massive resource capacities, while a little on the west, Iran
can play a major role in helping alleviate many challenges and problems faced
by countries Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and smaller ones like Sri Lanka
and Vietnam by offering them many of her capacity building experiences as well
as resources. So finally to face the challenges of international hegemony, the
three strategies can be taken place. First: One is resistance strategy, which
is difficult but possible and can be accomplished; second is the adaptive
strategy that requires a careful crafting of policy and administrative
mechanisms by national leadership to adapt to positive changes while avoiding
the harmful effects; and third is a combination of adaptive-resistance
strategies. Cultural cultivation and enhancing the proficiency as well as the
reduction of corruption should get pivotal priority. Receiving those
globalization challenges and converting it into opportunities through building
capacity and coalition in national and international level is one of the most
striking strategies in the twenty first century.
8
Writer-H.George Frederickson
Confucius was a great Chinese Philosopher. His contribution for
bureaucracy and democratic self-government system are recognized in this
present contemporary world though he gave the idea about 2000 years ago. His
prime ideology was focus on moral and ethical standards for proper functioning
of bureaucracy and to ensure betterment for all people where those who are
rulers and rules must perform some duty and role and he descried itas a culture
of reciprocity. He argued that culture of reciprocity make government and
bureaucracy well- functioning.
Main contribution
of this article: This article focus
on the distinct between Confucianism Western
model of bureaucracy such as Webern bureaucratic model. Western model focus on
constitutional, economic, political, professional foundation of bureaucracy but
Confucius model of bureaucracy focus on moral basis of bureaucracy. The moral
basis of bureaucracy found in East Asia not western countries. Confucius focus
on ethics of bureaucracy but Weber focus on structure and behavior of
bureaucracy. Writer divided the whole article into different sub sections under
three main sections.
Section One: Are there Bureaucratic Cultures?
This section basically focus on that before the emergence of
modernization in early 1990s the concept of common culture was weak and degree
of cultural constraint and fragmentation existed all group of human societies. Modernization
theory focus on coherent cultural pattern for social, economic and
technological development but such types of secular cultural system found in
China more than 2000 years ago which was the mental thought of Confucius.
Section Two: To What Extent Confucius Culture uniquely
Bureaucratic And
Values constitute A Moral Justification Of Bureaucracy?
This section basically focus on moral justification of rulers to ensure
peace, prosperity and justice so that people can lead a happy life. The idea of
Reciprocity
is central of Confucianism which resemblances the idea of social contract
theory of Locke, Rousseau and Kant .Some central features of Confucianism for
moral justification of bureaucracy are given below which are found in East
Asian countries such as China, Singapore and Korea.
Central Features of Confucianism: Central features of Confucianism are-
1)The rule of law
versus rule of man: There are explicit
distinction between Confucian and western
thinking regarding law. In western countries it is said that Public
administration is the law in action but Confucius focus on man in action while
9
ethics, norms and value are the prime indicators to guide the behavior
of ruler. Confucius argue that law make people cunning, law foster amorality as
well as foster ruthlessness
2) The
characteristics of good officials: Confucius developed a new concept of ruler and rule and maintained characteristics of ruler to ensure
welfare for citizen. He said that ruler must be determined by virtue, culture,
talent ,competence and merit which helped china from rule by social elite to
rule by a moral elite. The concept of gentleman was developed by Confucius
who will be educated, culturally refined and an absolutely a moral
public official as well as good officials.
3) The nature of
moral convention and their importance in governing:This indicates what
standards should guide behavior and provide social cohesion for rule of man.
Bureaucratic moral conventions should include the proper forms of supervision
of others. To be a good official all officials must learn and practice the
moral conventions of governance. According to Confucius all bureaucratic
relations are to be guided by moral conventions rather than public
administration being the law in action. Public administration is morality in
action.
4)The importance of
education and merit:Confucius focus on
formal as well as moral education at a
large scale. Confucius believed that both governmental and family investments
in education will reap cultural, social and specially economic benefit. In case
of bureaucratic form of East Asia the first priority was proper educational
qualification. Today’s Chinese celebrate Confucius birth day as
“Teachers’ Day” . Though Confucius emphasized in
education but his true vocation was politics. Confucius built an
enduring link between education and political power. For proper recruitment of
bureaucrat he also emphasized on proper examination based recruitment system.
5)How to serve
those in power: There was one of
the primary problems faced by the good officials How to
serve those in power if they are evil or corrupt. Confucius good officials must
emphasis on morality the issue which is a key feature of education and moral
conventions. He also said thatThereis one of the primary problem faced by the
good officials How to serve those in power if they are evil or corrupt. He also
believed that moral self-cultivation and an understanding of a commitment would
enable a good official to perform his duties and functions neutrally. . He also
focus on courage which is essential for moral attribute for the good officials.
In western countries the effects of specialization, division of labor and
compartmentalization of work undermine andspoil the courage of good officials.
6) The nature of order
in society: In every society
nature of social order is important. Concepts
of social order, harmony and balance are central to Confucianism. In this case
the best known statementis that” let the lord be a lord, the
10
subject to a subject, the father a father and the son a son”. According
to Confucius the sociopolitical order depends on appropriate definition of each
person’s identity.
7) Definition of
virtue & morality: It indicates what
traits of character make one a good person. As well
as Western and Confucian philosophy there is a congruence on the subject of
individual virtue and morality. At first Confucius focus on intelligence that
means an understanding of awareness of right or wrong, learned through
education and experience. Second is righteousness which is doing right rather
than wrong.
Section Three: The
implication of Confucian bureaucratic morality
Confucius focus on most complete and robust moral justification of
bureaucracy. It is found not in western countries but in East Asian countries.
There is a distinct Confucian based bureaucratic culture found today in China,
Japan and Korea. From 1965 to 1984, 5of the 10 fastest growing nations in the
world were countries shaped by the Confucian and Buddhist traditions and those
countries are Singapore, Taiwan, hongkong, south korea and japan.
Table: Comparison
between bureaucratic morality
in western &
Confucian
thought
|
Subject
|
|
Western thought
|
|
Confucian
or East Asian
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
thought
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Instrument
|
of
|
Constitutional
|
|
laws,
|
Man, judgment
|
|
governance
|
|
regulations.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
Power
|
|
From authority and position
|
From morality and position
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
Purpose
|
|
Efficiency, effectiveness and
|
Understanding to do good
|
||
|
|
|
equity
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Rules and roles
|
|
Ambiguous
|
|
|
Clear
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Values
|
|
Neutrality
|
and
|
policy
|
Virtue
|
|
|
|
advocacy
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Education
|
|
Knowledge and skills
|
|
Understanding, virtue
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Aspirations
|
|
To serve, to lead
|
|
To do good
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Example
|
|
Western countries
|
|
China, japan and korea
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
China, japan and Korea as Confucian states with bureaucratic culture is
entirely appropriate. Though at this present time the ideology of Confucius is
somehow eroded but those countries bureaucracy are still well functioning
compare to other countries of the world. The moral basis for government never
lost force even while the state losing ground to human weakness, corruption and
immorality. Because morality and value judgment give state proper direction to
choose right path to ensure betterment for people. . Both traditional western
philosophy and Confucian thought
11
predate theory and practice of democratic self-government. In East Asia
today , the big issues are democratic self-government, economic development and
elimination of corruption. Both countries have strong professional bureaucratic
built on Confucian tradition. In the west the moral arguments of the
Confucianism can complement a bureaucratic morality primarily tried to
constitution and laws. So morality and values are utmost necessary for proper
functioning of bureaucracy.
At last it is said by Confucius if people are afraid of the rulers and
administrators the bureaucracy won’t be well functioning and rulers would not
be inclined to serve citizens properly. Rather the proper collaboration and
understanding help people to get their better service.
12
Jay M. Shafritz & Albert C.
Hyde
In the very beginning of the paper the authors made an attempt to give
an insight of public administration so far as orthodoxy stage of the discipline
is concerned. It is started with identifying the trace of public administration
in Egyptian and Babylonian administration, Alexander Great’s use of staff. All
these were impetus of management techniques and somewhat analogues to 20th century public administration.
It imbued with dominance of scientific management that considers personnel as
just extension of machine. In past, those empires saw victory and maintained an
ascendency of monarchy they have better administrative capacity than their
competitors.
The civil service reform &
meritocracy in government
The authors demonstrated the trajectory of public administration in U.S.
The reform in American public administration was started with the introduction
of merit based recruitment followed by a series of incidences which include
removing officials for solely political reasons in Jefferson administration,
assassination of President Garfield by job-seeker, Eaton’s contribution towards
Pendleton Act of 1883. Civil service commission was formed and competitive
examination became ethos for recruitment in civil service. In the primary years
merit preference was mainly in entry level at federal administration. Still
higher level employees can be appointed- via lateral entry or own choosing. The
weakness of Pendleton Act to enforce federal agency to classify the positions
of state/local government administrators under civil service resulted in
reaffirming ‘relative autonomy’ that most cities en joyed. In recent time 28
states out of 50 and some local governments moved away from civil service that
guarantees a
|
secured
job for employees because it leads to inertia among employees. So
|
they
|
|
adopted ‘at
will employees’ who
are not given
prote ction under civil
|
service
|
|
guideline.
|
|
Politics
administration dichotomy & premise of scientific management
When previous American presidents find it too hard to adjust with
default complexities for running administration Woodrow Wilson was first to
think public administration as a conscious and professional field. Wilson’s
essay “the study of public administration” paved the way of it as an ac ademic
discipline. Wilson urges for politics administration dichotomy because of ever
increasing complexities in running government. Then Goodnow steered the wheel
claiming that politics and administration should be distinguished. As multi
disciplinary functions leaved public administration at debacle it had to
establish its own identity by incorporating progressive reform. This reform movement
was a reaction to Social Darwinism which suggests for rejection of government
intervention in social development. So the progressive movements seeks that it
is government who should involve in human
13
development. That is why democratic participation, application of
science and special knowledge became necessary elements in administration.
Adams was credited for his contribution in political and social reform,
addressing vision of self governance. Taylor’s scientific management came up
with development of time & motion studies for attaining ‘one best of way’
of accomplishing a given task. Replacing rule of thumb, scientific selection,
division of work all were some attempts to ensuring efficiency considering
personnel as just extension of machine. F. Willoughby, Another proponent of
classic public administration, wrote for budgetary reform. He argued budget
would establish co operation between legislative and executive and how would
ensure management efficiency. With the change in global perspective the role of
government changed it U.S. Aftermath of world war- I leaved U.S. to transform
from an agrarian society to an urban industrial nation. it required
considerable response from public administration ranging from creating
highways, maintaining traffic management system, establishing public parks and
public health. This 1920s perspective of administration was followed by Great
Depression in 1930s. Government’s response to recover from this economic malady
made public administration more pervasive part of American life.
Proponents of
classical public administration (Ideal type bureaucracy to behaviorism)
Max Weber contributed public administration with ‘ideal type of
bureaucracy’ which prefers neutral and impersonal bureaucracy. More
importantly, Weber’s model doesn’t necessarily mean that whenever an
organization is missing a single feature of bureaucracy it will be
nonbureaucratic rather less bureaucratic. L. D. White was first to clearly
articulate the objective of public administration and credited to write the
first text book in this field. He argued for politics administration dichotomy
saying that the basis of it is management not law. Besides he presented three
unique ideas to study public administration.
Administration
is a unitary process
It is
still an art but transformation to science is plausible
Administration will be heart of problem of modern
government
When all primary proponents of classic of public administration
emphasized on efficiency and White discussed about macro of public administration
(overall government system and their parts). Follet & Elton Mayo were two
of the first to focus micro level of personnel (theory of individual within
organization). While scientific management thought for having correlation
between work environments and productivity Hawthrone experiments found
correlation between peer pressure and productivity than to management controls.
14
Hazrat Ali (Ra.) was the fourth caliph of Islam. He was well known for
his great contribution to spiritual thought. He contributed in the field of
philosophy, religion, law and politics. Among his great contributions, the some
of the masterpieces are taught in the Muslim colleges and Universities. Here I
present the essence of Imam Ali’s famous letter of advice to the Governor of
Egypt, Malik Ashtar, which was transformed by RasheedTurabi.
The Richest Treasure (Good Administrator):
At the beginning of the letter, Imam Ali gave some advice that is worth
to a ruler. Here he defined as an administrator what to do and not to do. He
advised to control the temptation, to abstain from prohibited activities, to
love people, to behave well, to forgive people if the commit mistake and to
prioritize people above all. He prohibited to behave like dictator that makes
the ruler corrupt. He suggested to protect the rights of God, rights of man and
to motivate people to do so.
The Common Man (Ombudsmen, different parliamentary committees):
Here he defined the relationship between Government and the mass people.
Imam Ali advised his administrator to maintain justice in administration, to
seek the consent of the people. He advised not to prioritize the few(nepotism)
above masses that may cause disorder in the state. Mass people is the strength
of the state. They fight against enemy. He suggested to live in close contact
with people and to protect their rights.
The Counselors (Advisor):
Imam Ali outlined some essential qualifications for a good advisor.
These include as an advisor not to be a miser who can null and void the good
initiative of the government and frighten of poverty, not to be a coward and a
greedy as the advisor of the state department. An advisors must be truthful,
kind, intelligent, foresighted but unpolluted by seen, and will be those who
fear God and never aid the tyrant and criminal. He also referred to take
learnings from the experience of wise, and learned so that the peace and order,
prosperity and goodwill can be maintained.
The Different Classes of People (Espirit de corps):
People are composed of different classes. The progress of one is
dependents on the progress on every other. A state is composed of Army formed
of the soldiers, civil officers and their establishments, judiciary, customs
officers and public relation officers. The general public also consists of
Muslims and other subjects and among them of merchants and the tradesmen,
craftsman, the unemployed and poor. All of they have equal rights, duties and
obligations. If all of they complete their duties and responsibilities and
cooperate each other, the state can run well.
15
Here Imam Ali defined the quality of the Army and relationship between
Government and Army. For being a soldier of an Army, one must be faithful to
their God and the prophet and loyal to their chief and they have to control
their passion and temper. The leader has to care their soldiers like his
children and he has to attend every little of their wants. Imam Ali also
suggested to look aftertheir families when they are absent from their homes.
Chief Justice and subordinate judiciary (The Judiciary):
Imam Ali here outlined the act of chief justice and the subordinate
judiciary that is today known as one of three essential organs of the
Government. The qualification for being a chief justice, according to Imam Ali,
would be best among the people, not to be possessed with domestic worries,
cannot be intimidated, not err too often, not turn back from right way to wrong
way, consider the consent of the two parties, examine with patience every
disclosure of fact and must be impartial in his decision. There would be a
subordinate judiciary. Imam Ali advised his Governor to pay the higher salaries
to give them a contended life. He also recommended to establish surveillance over
their activities so that they improve their true honesty and true concern for
the public welfare. In time of their dishonesty, taking the case of occurrence
as serious is essential.
Revenue administration (Customs and excise):
Without revenue collection, a state cannot run properly. Here he
emphasized on the cultivation of land properly and productively rather than
collecting revenue forcefully. The prosperity of the state depends on the care
of the revenue collection. In time of natural disaster like drought, excessive
rainfall, soil infertility, floods epidemics or the cause of crop damage, the
rate of tax must be reduced or exempted.
Trade and Industry (Industrial policy):
Here the Caliph Ali (Ra) directed to his Governor to facilitate the
trade and industry. The people who are involved in business are generally peace
loving and contribute to a lot for the development of the state. But he
reminded about businessmen to his Governor that they cannot engage in creating
syndicate that can cause disorder in the market. He also directed to punish the
guilty who is involve in creating syndicate and black marketing.
The Poor (Poverty alleviation):
In this extract, Imam Ali emphasized on poverty alleviation and
redistribution of state resources. He directed his Governor to protect the
rights equally whatever they are far from him or nearer to him.They(poor)have
right to live, right to eat, right to speak though they are in trouble, victim
of vicissitudes of time. He also recommended to recruit high officials such men
who will be sincere about the rights of the poor.
Open Conference (People’s participation):
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Here Imam Ali mentioned to communicate between mass people and
Government that is today well known as people’s participation. He guided his
Governor to meet the people who are oppressed and needy (stakeholders) to
converse closely removing the armed guard or civil officers or members of the
police or the intelligence department from his side so that they can feel free
to share their needs and demands and their miseries.
Aloofness is not desirable (embedded autonomy):
Here he advised his administrator not to be aloof from people that may
keep oneself ignorant of their ruler. It may cause harmful to the Governor.
Here the Caliph made the demarcation between just and unjust, between rights
and wrong. For being a just ruler, one must be kept oneself close ties with
people, willing to hear them and meeting their needs and requirements.
Peace and Treaties (Foreign
Policy, Bi-lateral and multi-lateral relations and relationship with
international organization):
Here Imam Ali recommended to his Governor to take the opportunity of
treaty and proposal of peace that is today maintained through foreign policy
and through different international organization. He referred peace as the
source of comfort for the army and it reduces the worries of the leader and it
promotes the order of the state. In times of signing the treaties, he suggested
to his Governor to be with his armed forces so that the enemy cannot attack to
compel him receiving the forced terms and condition. After signing the
treaties, as Imam Ali directed to his Governor, one must discharge the peace
treaties faithfully. It is a trust that must be created to him. He directed to
the Governor to keep the promise that has been given to anyone. He also
reminded to keep the divine promise.
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The Changing Nature of Public Administration: From Easy
Answers to Hard Questions
B. Guy Peters
Over the past several decades public administration has experienced a
great pressure for change. These changes were resulted in the emergence of New
Public Management (NPM). Along with traditional public administration and NPM,
here a third concept is developed called “governance”. Muc h of these changes
have been practical and political. The blending of the practical and scientific
is a distinctive feature of public administration.
The Old Time Religion of Public Administration (Traditional Public
Administration):
The traditional public administration which was based on classical
models focused on the career, neutrally competent civil servant working within
a structure of hierarchical authority; emphasized on rule based management
rather than market based. Five assumptions suggested by Walsh and Stewart
(1992) highlighted the traditional model. First, self-sufficiency, i.e.
government need to be organized and equipped in order to make and implement
programs. Second, direct control, i.e. mangers at the top echelon was capable
of controlling their own organizations. Third, upward accountability, i.e.
government accountability was flowed from officials to political masters.
Fourth, uniformity, i.e. government was supposed to treat all citizens equally
in providing service. Fifth, civil service system, featured by standardized
establishment procedures. In addition to these five assumptions, another three
assumptions were further listed. First, legal and procedural performance, i.e.
performance was to be judged on legal and accounting grounds. Second,
constrained democracy, i.e. public involvement in decision making was not
considered necessary or appropriate. Third, limited policy role of
administration, i.e. bureaucrats were supposed to provide information and
advice to politicians in making policy without having influence.
The New Public Management:
The emergence of NPM was the result of rising demand to reform the
traditional model of public administration. It encourages following and
involving with private sector management to provide better citizen service
delivery. Here also developed five assumptions that reflect the function of
NPM. First, organizational autonomy and self-sufficiency, indicates “steering
not rowing” i.e. g overnment will play enabling role in providing services
through contracting with private sector organization or sponsor them and should
be highly autonomous from their political sponsor. Second, controlling public
employees, same as like traditional model, only difference here in
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the source of control. In traditional model, the control was based on
law and rules while in the NPM contrsol is exercised through financial
incentives. Third, accountability of public organizations, accountability will
more internalize and professional rather than the product of political controls
exerted from external institutions. Fourth, uniformity of public services, NPM
opposes this concept and drive toward differentiation and difference. Fifth,
policy and administration, it tends to institutionalize the dichotomy between
policy and administration.
Governance and Public Administration:
In addition toward using the ideas of the NPM, a crucial shift in
thinking about the role of public administration in government has been moving
away from a concentration on government per se and toward more concern with
governance. Governance is fundamentally about steering the economy and society,
a central instrument for goal setting and for accountability. The shift toward
governance means that government has become more of an enabling state than it
is a hierarchical, commanding state. Six assumptions highlight the functions of
governance. First, self-sufficiency, public administration is autonomous from
society and government utilizes organizations in the private sector as part of
the service delivery strategy for public programs. Second, control of
government employees, this assumption emphasize on empowering the lower
echelons of the public sector in making their own decisions. Third,
accountability regimes, accountability tends to become defined more in terms of
the average performance of an organization rather than in terms of potentially
isolated and exceptional. Fourth, uniformity of public services, public
services is valued less than in the traditional model. Normatively, the
differences that may emerge are generally regarded positively. Fifth,
governance and the civil service, the personnel systems of government will
require increased flexibility, and greater openness to a range of career and
management arrangements, than has been true of traditional formalized personnel
systems. Sixth, limited policy role of bureaucracy, here bureaucracy plays a
mediocre role in making policy. It manages its relationships with the civil
society, so that the management of networks becomes a crucial means of shaping
policy. An expanded conception of democracy is that governance is premised upon
steering society and that steering can be at a distance. It involves private
sector organizations and actors as crucial elements of service delivery. Now
emerging question is that if we want to reform we must be certain about the
question of reform from what, as well as that of reform towards what. If the
assumption about the nature of the pre-existing public sector is incorrect then
the prescriptions for reform are also likely to be incorrect. The capacity to
implement the governance style of reforming public administration will depend
very heavily upon the existence of strong organizations within civil society.
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The study of administration
---- Woodrow Wilson
The eminently practical science of administration is finding its way
into college courses in this country. Civil service reform is granted among us
improvement f personnel and methods of government offices are granted. The
objective of administrative study is; what government can properly and
successfully do, how government do these proper things with outmost possible
efficiency at the least possible cost either of money or of energy. In this
case a light is important what can provide only a careful study. Here three
aspects are needful
1. Some accounts of what other done in the same line
2. What’s
its subject matter?
3.
The best method by which to
develop administration and most clarifying political concepts.
No one wrote systematically of administration as a branch of the science
of government until the present century (1887) had passed. Political writers
whom we now read had thought , argued, dogmatized only about the constitution
of the government , nature of the state, the essence and seat of sovereignty,
about the greatest meanings lying at the heart of government. The question was
always arise how shall law should be administered with enlightened, with
equity, with speed and without friction. In early times, trouble was almost
about altogether about the constitution of the government. There was no trouble
about administration. The function of government was simple as life was itself
simple. There was no complex system of public revenues, there were plenty of
farms but no stocks and bonds but it was substantially true also of
comparatively late times. If difficulties in government action are to be seen
gathering in other countries they are to be seen culminating in our own. This
is the reason why now we are having “ Science of administration”
Why
science of administration:
a.
To straighten the paths of
government
b.
To make it’s business less
unbusiness like
c.
To strengthen and purify it’s
organizations
d.
To crown it’s duties with
dutifulness.
Differences between old and new administration by Mr. Bagehot’s way: A
despot wishes to govern a distant province, he sends down a eatrap on a grand
horse, and other pople on little horses; and very little is heard of the satrap
again unless he send back some of the little people to tell what he has been
doing. No great labor of superintendence is possible. Common rumor and casual
report are sources of intelligence. In civilized countries the process is
different. You erect a bureau in the province you want to govern you make iit
write letters and copy letters. It is not of our
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making, it a foreign science. It has been developed by French and German
professors and it is consequently in all parts adopted to the needs of a
compact state. Government has received in Europe first where government has
long been a monopoloy, rather than in England or the united states where
government has been common franchise. Why in Europe, two reasons i.e. just
government was independent of popular assent, there was more to be govern and
the monopolists became interested in discovering the least imitating means of
governing. Prussia where administration has been studies and most nearly
perfected in . Frederic the great was sincerely professed to egard himself as
only the chief servant of the state , to consider his grate office a public trust.
It was he who , building upon the foundations laid by his father. Frederic
William three under the inspiration of stein again in his turn, advanced the
work still further, planning many of the broader structural features which give
firmness and form to Prussian administration to day. The field of
administration is a field of business. It is a part of political life only as
the methods of counting –house are a part of the life of society. The objective
of administrative society is to rescue executive methods from the confusion and
costliness of empirical experiment and set them upon foundations laid deep in
stable principle. Administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics,
administrative questions are not political questions although politics sets the
tasks for administration. It should not be suffered to manipulate it’s
offices. German eminent write Bluntschil
bids us separate administration alike from politics and from law. He says
politics is the state activity” in things great and universal” on the other
hand administration is “ the activity of the state in individual and small
things”. But administration is not therefore politi cs. A great deal of
administration goes about incognito to most of the world , being confounded now
with political “management” and again with constitutional politics . Confusion
may be explained with the Niebuh’s
liberty . he says” liberty depends comparatively m ore upon administration than
upon constitution”. The broad plans of governmental actions are not
administrative; the detailed execution of such plans is administrative.
Constitutions , therefore , properly concern themselves only with those
instrumentalities of government which are to control general law. The study of
administration is closely connected with the study of the proper distribution
of constitutional authority. To be efficient it must discover the simplest
arrangements by which responsibility can be unmistakably fixed upon officials.
To discover the best principle for the distribution of authority is of greater
importance, that can be under democratic system. Where officials serve many
masters. All sovereigns are suspicious of their servants. This suspicion can be
allayed by knowledge as trust is strength.
The
proper relations between public opinion and administration
To whom of official trustworthiness to be disclosed and by whom it is to
be rewarded? The right answers to be, that public opinion shall play the part
of authoritative critic. Woodrow Wilson emphasized on the openness of
bureaucratic activities and criticism of the general people about that. A
German professor of political science said emphasizing on the opinion” please
try to have opinion about
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national affairs” to improve public opinion which i s the motive power
of government. In this case better officials as apparatus of government are
much significant. For getting better officials it is necessary to organize
democracy by sending up to the competitive examinations for the civil service
men definitely prepared for standing liberal tests as to technical knowledge.
Corps of civil servants prepared by schooling and drilled.Without comparative
studies in government we can not rid of ourselves of the misconceptions that
administrations stands on an essentially different basis in a democratic state
from that on which it stands in a non- democratic state.We borrowed our whole
political language from England but we leave the words “king” and “lord”.
We can borrow the science of administration with safety and profit if we
only read all fundamental differences of conditions into it’s essential tenets.
In this respect we can never learn either our own weakness or our own virtues
by comparing ourselves with ourselves. Even the English system is too much like
ou own. It is best on the whole to get entirely away from our own atmosphere
and to be most careful in examining such system as those of France and Germany.
We thus devise an adjusting weight for our comparative method of study. We can
thus scrutinize the anatomy of foreign government without fear of getting any
of their diseases into our vains.
Reference
Ali Farazmand, Governance in the age of
globalization: challenges & opportunities for south and southeast asia
Writer-H.George Frederickson,
Confucius and the Moral Basis of Bureaucracy Paul S Armstrong, Caliph Ali’s
Letter To Malik AshtarIntroduction
Jay M. Shafritz & Albert C.
Hyde Classic
of public administration
Woodrow Wilson, The study of administration
(Political science quarterly)
B. Guy Peters, The Changing Nature of Public Administration:
From Easy Answers to Hard Questions
Prof. Dr. H.C. Wolfgang Drechsler, Three Paradigms
of Governance and Public Administration: Chinese , Western & Islamic
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